Positivist School Coursework Services

Quick answer: The positivist school of criminology argues that crime is caused by factors largely outside a person’s control, such as biology, psychology and social conditions, rather than by free and rational choice. It emerged in late 19th-century Italy with Cesare Lombroso, Enrico Ferri and Raffaele Garofalo, who used scientific observation and measurement to study offenders. It’s usually taught as the opposite of the classical school, which sees crime as a calculated decision.

The positivist school is one of the two foundational schools of criminology, and almost every introductory criminology course asks you to explain it, compare it with the classical school, or critique it. At Homework Help Canada, our writers with backgrounds in criminology, sociology and criminal law can help you with positivist school coursework, from short response papers to full research essays.

Below, you’ll find a guide to the theory itself: where it came from, its key thinkers, its main branches, how it compares with classical criminology, and the criticisms you’ll be expected to discuss.

What Is the Positivist School of Criminology?

The positivist school holds that criminal behaviour has causes that can be identified and measured using the methods of science. Instead of asking how society should punish a crime, positivists ask why a particular person commits crime in the first place.

Three ideas sit at the centre of the school:

• Determinism: behaviour is shaped by forces such as biology, personality and social environment, not purely by free will.
• The scientific method: causes of crime should be studied through observation, measurement and data, not philosophy or abstract reasoning.
• A focus on the offender: the individual and their circumstances matter more than the crime itself, so responses to crime should be tailored to the person.

Origins of Positivist Criminology

The word “positivism” comes from the French philosopher Auguste Comte, whose Course in Positive Philosophy (1830 to 1842) argued that society could be studied scientifically, just like the natural world. Around the same time, statisticians André-Michel Guerry in France and Adolphe Quetelet in Belgium began analyzing crime data and found that crime rates were remarkably stable from year to year. That suggested crime had social causes that could be measured.

Positivism became a school of criminology in late 19th-century Italy, when three thinkers challenged the classical principles that had shaped criminal law since the 1700s. Together, they’re often called the Italian school.

• Cesare Lombroso (1835 to 1909), a physician, published Criminal Man (L’uomo delinquente) in 1876. He argued that some offenders were “born criminals,” evolutionary throwbacks who could be identified by physical traits. He’s often called the father of modern criminology.
• Enrico Ferri (1856 to 1929), Lombroso’s student, broadened the focus in Criminal Sociology (1884). He argued that crime results from a combination of individual, physical and social factors, and that preventing crime matters more than punishing it.
• Raffaele Garofalo (1851 to 1934), a jurist, wrote Criminology (Criminologia, 1885). He defined “natural crime” as acts that offend basic moral sentiments shared across societies, which he called pity and probity, and linked punishment to an offender’s dangerousness.

The term “criminology” itself dates from this period. It’s often credited to the French anthropologist Paul Topinard, and Garofalo’s 1885 book helped make it the standard name for the field.

To go deeper on these three thinkers, see our page on the Italian school of criminology.

Key Positivist Thinkers at a Glance

Classical vs. Positivist School of Criminology

The positivist school developed as a direct response to the classical school, associated with Cesare Beccaria’s On Crimes and Punishments (1764) and Jeremy Bentham. Comparing the two is one of the most common criminology assignments.

For the other side of this comparison, see our page on the classical school of criminology.

The Three Branches of Positivism

Later positivists moved beyond Lombroso’s focus on physical traits. Today, positivist explanations of crime are usually grouped into three branches.

Biological Positivism

Biological positivism looks for causes of crime in the body, from Lombroso’s physical “stigmata” to William Sheldon’s body types in the mid-20th century. Lombroso’s idea of a physically identifiable criminal type has been discredited. Charles Goring’s 1913 study The English Convict compared prisoners with non-prisoners and found no distinct criminal physique. Modern research in this tradition focuses on how genetics, brain function and environment interact. Learn more about biosocial theories and trait theories.

Psychological Positivism

Psychological positivism links crime to personality traits, mental processes and early life experiences. Examples include Freud’s ideas about the id, ego and superego, John Bowlby’s attachment theory, and Hans Eysenck’s theory of personality and crime.

Sociological Positivism

Sociological positivism locates the causes of crime in society rather than the individual, pointing to factors such as poverty, neighbourhood conditions, inequality and exposure to deviant subcultures. It runs from Quetelet’s crime statistics through Émile Durkheim’s work on anomie to the Chicago School’s research on urban neighbourhoods and Robert Merton’s strain theory (1938). See our pages on sociological positivism and strain theory.

Criticisms of the Positivist School

A strong essay on positivism doesn’t just describe it. It evaluates it. These are the criticisms you’re most likely to be asked to discuss:

• Too deterministic: by downplaying free will, positivism can seem to excuse offenders of responsibility for their choices.
• Weak early methods: Lombroso’s studies lacked proper control groups, and later research such as Goring’s failed to support his findings.
• Links to discrimination: biological positivism was used to justify racist and eugenic ideas and policies in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
• Ignores how crime is defined: positivism treats “crime” as a fixed category, while critics such as labelling theorists argue that crime is partly created by how laws are written and enforced.
• Biased samples: studies based on prison populations only capture people who were caught and convicted.

Why the Positivist School Still Matters

Even with these criticisms, positivism shaped criminal justice in lasting ways. The idea that sentences should fit the offender, not just the offence, helped lead to probation, parole, rehabilitation programs and individualized sentencing. Its insistence on studying crime scientifically also laid the foundation for criminology as a research discipline. Modern biosocial, psychological and sociological theories all build on positivist assumptions, even when they reject its early conclusions.

How We Help With Positivist School Coursework

Our criminology writers can help you with assignments on the positivist school at any level, including:

• Essays comparing the classical and positivist schools
• Critical evaluations of Lombroso, Ferri or Garofalo
• Research papers on biological, psychological or sociological positivism
• Literature reviews and annotated bibliographies on theories of crime
• Case studies applying positivist theory to a real offence or policy

Each paper is written to your instructions and referencing style, with credible academic sources. If you’ve already drafted your paper, our editing services can strengthen your argument and citations, and our online tutoring can help you work through the theory one-on-one.

Looking for help with another theory? Browse all of our criminology coursework services.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the main idea of the positivist school of criminology?

The positivist school argues that crime is caused by biological, psychological and social factors that can be studied scientifically, rather than by free and rational choice.

Who founded the positivist school of criminology?

Cesare Lombroso is usually credited as the founder, with Enrico Ferri and Raffaele Garofalo as its other leading figures. The broader idea of positivism comes from the philosopher Auguste Comte.

What is the difference between classical and positivist criminology?

Classical criminology sees crime as a rational choice and focuses on deterring it with proportionate punishment. Positivist criminology sees crime as caused by factors outside the offender’s control and focuses on understanding and treating those causes.

Is Lombroso’s theory still accepted today?

No. His idea of a “born criminal” with identifiable physical traits was disproven, most famously by Charles Goring in 1913. His insistence on studying offenders scientifically, however, had a lasting influence on criminology.

What are the three types of positivism in criminology?

Biological positivism, which looks at physical and genetic factors; psychological positivism, which looks at personality and mental processes; and sociological positivism, which looks at social and environmental conditions.

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